The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (69 page)

10
.
Jill Rafuse, ‘US Industry Hurt by Rising Research Costs and Slump in Prices',
Canadian Medical Association Journal
, 1994, Vol. 150, p. 130.

11
.
John Griffin, ‘The Madness of Industry's Mega Mergers',
Scrip Magazine
, May 1996, pp. 10–11. See also Editorial, ‘Bigger Companies for Better Drugs',
The Lancet
, 1995, Vol. 346, p. 585.

12
.
James R. Broach and Jeremy Thorner, ‘High-Throughput Screening for Drug Discovery',
Nature
, 1996, Vol. 384, pp. 14–16.

John Bunker, ‘Artificial Organs and Life-support Systems',
Encyclopaedia of Bioethics, Vol. 1
, ed. Warren Thomas Reich (New York: Macmillan, 1978).

Bryan Jennett,
High Technology Medicine: Benefits and Burdens
(Oxford: OUP, 1986).

Tim Chard and Martin Richards, ‘Benefits and Hazards of the New Obstetrics',
Clinics in Developmental Medicine
, 1977, No. 64.

Anne Oakley,
The Captured Womb
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1984).

1
.
J. A. Seibert, ‘100 Years of Diagnostic Imaging Technology',
Health Physics
, 1995, Vol. 69, pp. 695–719.

2
.
Katherine Petre
et al.
, ‘PTCA in 1985–86 and 1977–81',
NEJM
, 1998, Vol. 318, pp. 265–70.

3
.
W. Y. Lau, ‘History of Endoscopic and Laparoscopic Surgery',
World Journal of Surgery
, 1997, Vol. 21, pp. 444–53. See also P. J. Treacy and A. G. Johnson, ‘Is the Laparoscopic Bubble Bursting?',
The Lancet
, 1995, Vol. 346, p. 23.

4
.
M. E. Abrams, ‘Cost of Tests',
Journal of the Royal College of Physicians
, 1979, Vol. 13, pp. 217–18. See also Bruce R. Smoller, ‘Phlebotomy for Diagnostic Laboratory Tests in Adults',
NEJM
, 1986, Vol. 315, pp. 1233–5; John F. Burnum, ‘Medical Vampires',
NEJM
, 1986, Vol. 315, p. 1250.

5
.
Editorial, ‘Reducing Tests',
The Lancet
, 1981, Vol. 1, pp. 539–40. See also Jonathan Showstack, ‘Changes in the Use of Medical Technology, 1972–77',
NEJM
, 1982, Vol. 306, pp. 706–13; Paul F. Griner, ‘Misuse of Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic Procedures',
NEJM
, 1982, Vol. 307, pp. 1336–9.

6
.
M. L. Clark, ‘Upper Intestinal Endoscopy',
The Lancet
, 1985, Vol. 1, p. 629. See also Howard M. Spiro, ‘My Kingdom for a Camera: Some Comments on Medical Technology',
NEJM
, 1974, pp. 1070–2.

7
.
Edward J. Quilligan and R. H. Paul, ‘Foetal Monitoring: Is it Worth it?',
Obstetrics and Gynaecology
, 1975, Vol. 45, pp. 96–100.

8
.
Ronald E. Miers, ‘Two Patterns of Perinatal Brain Damage and Their Conditions of Occurrence',
AJOG
, 1972, Vol. 112, pp. 246–60.

9
.
R. W. Beard
et al.
, ‘The Significance of Changes in the Continuous Foetal Heart Rate in the First Stage of Labour',
Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth
, 1971, Vol. 78, pp. 865–81. See also R. W. Beard
et al.
, ‘Intensive Care of the High-risk Foetus in Labour',
Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth
, 1971, Vol. 78, pp. 882–93; Raymond Kennedy, ‘Electronic Foetal Heart Rate Monitoring:
Retrospective Reflections on a Twentieth-century Technology',
JRSM
, 1998, Vol. 91, p. 244.

10
.
William Arney,
Monitoring and Surveillance in Power and the Profession of Obstetrics
(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

11
.
Compare Editorial, ‘Is Foetal Monitoring Worthwhile?',
BMJ
, 6 March 1971, pp. 515–16 with G. S. Sykes
et al.
, ‘Foetal Distress in the Condition of New-born Infants',
BMJ
, 1983, Vol. 287, pp. 943–5; also correspondence,
BMJ
, 1984, Vol. 288, pp. 567–9 and Editorial, ‘Foetal Monitoring During Labour',
BMJ
, 3 December 1983, pp. 1649–50.

12
.
Donald Acheson, William Power Memorial Lecture, Department of Health, 1990.

13
.
Dermot Macdonald, ‘Cerebral Palsy and Intrapartum Foetal Monitoring',
NEJM
, Vol. 334, pp. 659–60. See also Adrian Grant
et al.
, ‘Cerebral Palsy Among Children Born During the Dublin Randomised Trial of Intrapartum Monitoring',
The Lancet
, 1989, Vol. 2, pp. 1233–5; Fiona Stanley, ‘Cerebral Palsy: The Courts Catch up With Sad Realities',
Medical Journal of Australia
, 1994, Vol. 161, p. 236; David Hall, ‘Birth Asphyxia and Cerebral Palsy',
BMJ
, 1989, Vol. 299, pp. 279–83; Eve Blair, ‘Intrapartum Asphyxia: A Rare Cause of Cerebral Palsy',
Journal of Paediatrics
, 1988, Vol. 112, pp. 5125–519; Editorial, ‘Cerebral Palsy, Intrapartum Care and a Shot in the Foot',
The Lancet
, 1989, Vol. 2, pp. 1251–2; Fritz K. Beller, ‘The Cerebral Palsy Story: A Catastrophic Misunderstanding in Obstetrics',
Obstetrical and Gynaecological Survey
, 1995, Vol. 50, p. 83.

14
.
R. S. Illingworth, ‘Why Blame the Obstetrician? A Review',
BMJ
, 1979, Vol. 1, pp. 797–801.

15
.
Quoted in Roy Porter,
The Greatest Benefit to Mankind
(HarperCollins, 1997).

16
.
Muriel Gillick, ‘The High Cost of Dying',
Archives of Internal Medicine
, 1994, Vol. 154, pp. 2134–7.

17
.
David P. Schapira, ‘Intensive Care: Survival and Expense of Treating Critically Ill Cancer Patients',
JAMA
, 1993, Vol. 269, pp. 783–6.

18
.
Robert and Peggy Stinson, ‘On the Death of a Baby',
Journal of Medical Ethics
, 1981, Vol. 7, pp. 5–18.

1
.
James Wyngaarden, ‘The Clinical Investigator as an Endangered Species',
NEJM
, 1969, Vol. 301, pp. 1254–9.

2
.
BMJ
, 1970, Vol. 1, pp. 1–58.

3
.
Jonathan M. Glass, ‘The Proportion of the
BMJ
's Editorials on Medical Subjects is Decreasing',
BMJ
, 1996, Vol. 313, pp. 1503–4. See also Bruno Simini, ‘Randomised Control Trials',
The Lancet
, 1998, Vol. 351, p. 682.

4
.
BMJ
, 1995, Vol. 310, pp. 1–70.

5
.
Christopher C. Booth, ‘Clinical Research',
Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC
, ed. Joan Austoker and Linda Bryder (Oxford: OUP, 1989). See also Editorial, ‘Brave New Hospital',
BMJ
, 5 September 1970, p. 538; ‘Northwick Park Hospital and Clinical Research Centre',
BMJ
, 5 September 1970, pp. 576–80.

6
.
Editorial, ‘The Future of Clinical Research in Britain',
BMJ
, 1986, Vol. 292, pp. 416–17. See also ‘A Boost for Clinical Research',
BMJ
, 1986, Vol. 292, p. 362 and correspondence: Christopher Booth,
BMJ
, 1986, Vol. 292, p. 556; Richard Edwards,
BMJ
, 1986, Vol. 292, p. 619; Victor Hawthorne,
BMJ
1986, Vol. 292, p. 830.

7
.
Everett Vokes, ‘Combined Modality Therapy of Solid Tumours',
The Lancet
, 1997, Vol. 349 (supplement II), pp. 4–6.

PART III: THE FALL

Walter Bodmer and Robin McKie,
The Book of Man
(Little, Brown,1994).

Stephen S. Hall,
Invisible Frontiers: The Race to Synthesise a Human Gene
(Sidgwick & Jackson, 1988).

Horace Freeland Judson,
The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution of Biology
(Penguin, 1979).

Evelyn Fox Keller,
Refiguring Life: Metaphors for Twentieth-Century Biology
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).

Daniel J. Kevles and Leroy Hood,
The Code of Codes
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).

Dorothy Nelkin and M. Susan Lindee,
The DNA Mystique: The Gene as a Cultural Icon
(New York: W. H. Freeman, 1995).

Robert Shapiro,
The Human Blueprint: The Race to Unlock the Secrets of Our Genetic Script
(Cassell, 1992).

James D. Watson,
The Double Helix
(Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997)

David Weatherall,
The New Genetics and Clinical Practice
(Oxford: OUP, 1991).

——,
Science and the Quiet Art
(Oxford: OUP, 1993).

Tom Wilkie,
Perilous Knowledge
(Faber & Faber, 1993).

Christopher Wills,
Exons, Introns and Talking Genes: The Science Behind the Human Genome Project
(Oxford: OUP, 1992).

1
.
John Saville, ‘Prospecting for Gold in the Human Genome',
BMJ
, 1997. Vol. 314, pp. 43–9.

2
.
J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick, ‘Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid',
Nature
, 1953, Vol. 171, p. 737.

3
.
J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick, ‘Genetic Implications of the Structure of DNA',
Nature
, 1953, Vol. 171, pp. 964–6.

4
.
F. H. C. Crick, ‘On Protein Synthesis',
Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), pp. 138–53.

5
.
Joshua Lederberg, ‘What the Double Helix Has Meant for Basic Medical Science',
JAMA
, 1993, Vol. 269, pp. 1981–5. See also Victor McKusick, ‘Medical Genetics: A Forty-year Perspective on the Evolution of a Medical Specialty from a Basic Science',
JAMA
, 1993, Vol. 270, pp. 2351–6; Irwin Chargaff, ‘Preface to a Grammar of Biology: 100 Years of Nucleic Acid Research',
Science
, 1971, Vol. 172, pp. 637–42; Gunther S. Stent, ‘That Was the Molecular Biology That Was',
Science
, 1968, Vol. 160, pp. 390–5.

6
.
Christopher Wills,
Exons, Introns and Talking Genes
.

7
.
David Weatherall,
Science and the Quiet Art
.

8
.
Maxim Frank-Kamenetskii,
Unravelling DNA
(New York: Wiley-VCH, 1993).

9
.
Hamilton O. Smith, ‘Nobel Lectures: Physiology or Medicine, 1971–80',
World Scientific
, 1992, pp. 523–43.

10
.
Stanley N. Cohen
et al.
, ‘Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids in Vitro',
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
, 1973, Vol. 70, pp. 3240–4. See also Stanley N. Cohen, ‘The Manipulation of Genes',
Scientific American
, 1975, pp. 25–33.

11
.
David Baltimore, ‘RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions of RNA Tumour Viruses',
Nature
, 1970, Vol. 226, pp. 1209–11; Howard M. Temin, ‘RNA-dependent DNA Preliminaries in Virions of Rouse Sarcoma Virus',
Nature
, 1970, Vol. 226, pp. 1211–13; David Baltimore, ‘Nobel Lectures: Physiology or Medicine, 1971–80',
World Scientific
, 1992, pp. 215–29.

12
.
Axel Ullrich, ‘Rat Insulin Genes: Construction of Plasmids Containing the Coding Sequences',
Science
, 1977, Vol. 196, pp. 1313–17. See also D. L. Kacian
et al.
, ‘Decreased Globin Messenger RNA in Thalassaemia Detected by Molecular Hybridization',
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
, 1973, Vol. 70, pp. 1886–90.

13
.
Frederick Sanger, ‘Determination of Nucleotide Sequences in DNA',
Science
, 1981, Vol. 214, p. 1205. See also F. Sanger
et al.
, ‘Nucleotide Sequence of Bacteriophage x174 DNA',
Nature
, 1977, Vol. 265, p. 687.

14
.
Walter Gilbert, ‘DNA Sequencing and Gene Structure',
Science
, 1981, Vol. 214, p. 1305.

15
.
David E. Comings, ‘Prenatal Diagnosis and the “New Genetics”',
American Journal of Human Genetics
, 1980, Vol. 32, p. 453. See also David Weatherall,
The New Genetics and Clinical Practice
; Tony Smith, ‘How Will the New Genetics Work?',
BMJ
, 1983, Vol. 286, pp. 1–2.

16
.
Stephen S. Hall,
Invisible Frontiers
.

17
.
Walter Bodmer and Robin McKie,
The Book of Man
.

18
.
James Erlichman,
Guardian
, 15 September 1982.

19
.
Joseph Eschbach, ‘Correction of the Anaemia of End-stage Renal Disease With Recombinant Human Erythropoietin',
NEJM
, 1987, Vol. 316, pp. 73–8.

20
.
Martin Gore
et al.
, ‘Tumour Marker Level During Marimastat Therapy',
The Lancet
, 1996, Vol. 348, p. 263. See also W. Wayt Gibbs, ‘State of Shock: Sepsis Can Be Fatal to Firms as well as to Patients',
Scientific American
, October 1994, pp. 107–8; Editorial, ‘Biotech's Uncertain Future',
The Lancet
, 1996, Vol. 347, p. 1497.